Teaching College Students with Learning Disabilities

Authors: Stan F. Shaw, Sally S. Scott, and Joan M. McGuire

November 2001

During the last quarter century, the concepts of mainstreaming, least restrictive environment and inclusion encouraged public schools to serve more students with disabilities in K-12 general education classes, and there has been a corresponding increase in the number of students with disabilities who attend college.

At the college level, issues in educating students with disabilities are often different than those affecting K-12 education, and the instructional climate is changing. Taken together, these trends call for a more systematic method of accommodating diverse learning needs. This digest presents the issues and offers a practical approach to improving instruction for students with learning disabilities (LD).

Disability Law at the College Level is Not as Prescriptive
At the college level, the prescriptive Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) is not applicable. While two civil rights laws, Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973 and the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA), provide for equal access for "otherwise qualified" students with disabilities, exactly how equal access applies to instruction is less clear (Brinckerhoff, McGuire & Shaw, 2002).

The Instructional Climate in Higher Education is Changing
Traditionally, many college professors have emphasized content over pedagogy, raising concerns about their knowledge of effective instructional strategies, especially for students with disabilities. In the 21st century an increased emphasis on pedagogy in higher education is creating opportunities to improve instruction for college students with LD. A high rate of faculty turnover has been projected for this decade (Magner, 2000), offering an opportunity for new faculty to enter academia at a time when teaching skills are valued.

Additionally, information technology can support instructional approaches previously not feasible in the college classroom. Effective instruction by faculty is now viewed as a critical element in the accessibility of learning environments (Scott & Gregg, 2000). In many colleges a major role of Disability Services personnel is to collaborate with faculty to help students become self-determined, independent learners (Shaw & Dukes, 2001).

With more students with LD attending college and a mixed level of pedagogical expertise among faculty, expecting faculty to make individual modifications and accommodations can be problematic. A more systematic method of meeting the needs of diverse learners is required, and Universal Design for Instruction (UDI) is such a model.

Universal Design for Instruction
The general concept of Universal Design (UD) includes a specific set of principles to systematically incorporate accessible features into a design instead of retrofitting changes or accommodations. As applied in the field of architecture, UD results in the creation of environments and products that are as usable as possible by a diverse range of individuals.

Building on the framework of UD and its principles (Follette, Story, Mueller, & Mace, 1998), UDI anticipates the needs of diverse learners and incorporates effective strategies into curriculum and instruction to make learning more accessible. By focusing on methods and strategies that promote learning for all students, UDI embraces an inclusionary approach that enables students with disabilities to overcome some of their barriers to learning.

When the principles of UD are adapted to reflect the instructional practices that have been acknowledged as effective with students with LD, a more inclusive paradigm for teaching emerges. UDI provides a conceptual framework for thinking about access and inclusion for diverse individuals.

Principles of Universal Design for Instruction*
The UDI framework consists of nine general principles (Scott, McGuire, & Shaw, 2001) to guide faculty in thinking about and developing instruction for a broad range of students.

1.Equitable use-Instruction is designed to be useful to and accessible by people with diverse abilities. It provides the same means of use for all students, identical whenever possible, equivalent when not. Example: Using web-based courseware products with links to on-line resources so all students can access materials, regardless of varying academic preparation, distance from campus, etc.

2.Flexibility in use-Instruction is designed to accommodate a wide range of individual abilities. It provides choice in methods of use. Example: Using varied instructional methods (lecture with a visual outline, group activities, use of stories, or web-based discussions) to support different ways of learning.

3.Simple and intuitive instruction-Instruction is designed in a straightforward and predictable manner, regardless of the student's experience, knowledge, language skills, or current concentration level. It eliminates unnecessary complexity. Example: Providing a grading scheme for papers or projects to clearly state performance expectations.

4.Perceptible information-Instruction is designed so that necessary information is communicated effectively, regardless of ambient conditions or the student's sensory abilities. Example: Selecting text books, reading material, and other instructional supports in digital format so students with diverse needs can access materials through print or by using technological supports (e.g., screen reader, text enlarger).

5.Tolerance for error-Instruction anticipates variation in individual student learning pace and requisite skills. Example: Structuring a long-term course project with the option of turning in individual project components separately for constructive feedback and for integration into the final product.

6.Low physical effort-Instruction is designed to minimize nonessential physical effort in order to allow maximum attention to learning. Note: This principle does not apply when physical effort is integral to essential requirements of a course. Example: Allowing students to use a word processor for writing and editing papers or essay exams.

7.Size and space for approach and use-Instruction is designed with consideration for appropriate size and space for approach, reach, manipulations, and use regardless of a student's body size, posture, mobility, and communication needs. Example: Using a circular seating arrangement in small class settings to allow students to see and face speakers during discussion-important for students with attention problems.

8.A community of learners-The instructional environment promotes interaction and communication among students and between students and faculty. Example: Fostering communication among students in and out of class by structuring study and discussion groups, e-mail lists, or chat rooms.

9.Instructional climate-Instruction is designed to be welcoming and inclusive. High expectations are espoused for all students. Example: Creating a statement on the syllabus affirming the need for students to respect diversity, underscoring the expectation of tolerance, and encouraging students to discuss any special learning needs with the instructor.

Examples of UDI in Practice

Example #1: Equitable Use: As Dr. Smith reflected on adjustments to her lecture course, she realized that for the last three semesters she had had at least one student with a learning disability who had requested a notetaker. In planning for the next semester, Dr. Smith anticipated this need by posting class notes on the class web site, making the notes available in the same form to all students (Principle #1, Equitable Use).

Any student with a learning disability would have immediate access to a complete set of lecture notes and would no longer need a notetaker. Informal discussions with students and end-of-semester course evaluations indicated that many students found this a useful instructional feature, including students whose primary language is not English, students with attention deficits, and students wanting to preview the day's instruction. This instructional support resulted in a more "usable" environment for students with diverse learning needs.

Example #2: Flexible Use: As Dr. Hagan prepared his class syllabus for English Composition, he thought about his previous semester. All students were required to submit four papers. He had provided clear due dates, but was constantly bombarded with requests for extended deadlines. "I need extra time on writing assignments." "I have two other tests on the same day." In thinking about the schedule for the next semester, Dr. Hagan changed his scheduling procedure: He would allow students to set their own due dates for the four papers (Principle #2: Flexibility in Use).

Since students set their own schedules and could adjust the submission dates to fit other demands on their time, no late papers were accepted. In the course of the semester, Dr. Hagan found that having papers come in at different times enhanced his teaching. With one or two papers submitted each class session, he could grade the work and get feedback to students more promptly while being responsive to other demands on students' time.

A Step Toward the Future
As College instructors learn to implement these principles, they will be able to more effectively teach all students, including those with learning disabilities, with reduced reliance on accommodations. To do this, college faculties need support for responding to student diversity and a means of sharing their knowledge. A website, facultyware.com, is being built to offer such support.

Resources

Brinckerhoff, L.C., McGuire, J.M., & Shaw, S.F. (2002). Postsecondary education and transition for students with learning disabilities (Second Edition). Austin,TX: PRO-ED.

Follette Story, M., Mueller, J.L., & Mace, R.L. (1998). The universal design file: Designing for people of all ages and abilities. Raleigh, NC: North Carolina State University, The Center for Universal Design.

Magner, D.K. (2000, March 17). The imminent surge in retirement. Chronicle of Higher Education, 46(28), A18-A20.

Scott, S.S., & Gregg, N. (2000). Meeting the evolving needs of faculty in providing access for college students with LD. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 33, 158-167.

Scott, S., McGuire, J.M., & Foley, T.E. (2001). Universal design for instruction: An exploration of principles for anticipating and responding to student diversity in the classroom. Storrs, CT: Center on Postsecondary Education and Disability.

Scott, S., McGuire, J., & Shaw, S. (in press). Universal design for instruction: A new paradigm for adult instruction in postsecondary education. Remedial and Special Education.

Scott, S., McGuire, J.M., & Shaw, S. (2001). Principles of universal design for instruction. Storrs, CT: Center on Postsecondary Education and Disability.

Shaw, S.F., & Dukes, L.L. (2001). Program standards for disability services in higher education. Journal of Postsecondary Education and Disability, 14(2), 81-90.

* Note: Adapted from Principles of Universal Design for Instruction by Sally Scott, Joan McGuire and Stan Shaw (2001). Center on Postsecondary Education and Disability, University of Connecticut. Users of this digest may copy and disseminate this information with the provision that they credit Scott, McGuire and Shaw.

Role of Writing Exercises in keeping students engaged

Research has shown a correlation between writing and student engagement. Writing reflects thinking and help to shape and influence thinking. Teachers should assign writing tasks to improve intellectual skills, remember, review and translate own ideas into their own language.

Rule of Thumb for Building writing assignments in your courses:

• Identify and clarify writing tasks for your students
• Make it concrete and challenging
• Add a persona or audience (e.g. Pretend you are a woman activist in 1919 or write a treatise on the right of women to vote for a male Congress)
• Use cue words such as Analyze, compare and contrast, illustrate, paraphrase, explain

What are some possible written assignments for student engagement?

• Journals – opportunity for students to be self-reflective and introspective or share their own point of view
• Reaction paper - Students first summarize a reading, class discussion or guest lecturer and then make personal, evaluative comments about the information.
• Write an opinion – Ask students to write their opinion on a controversial topic related to your course
• Summarize – Have students summarize in writing at the end of discussion
• Write questions – Have students write questions from reading and then discuss them at the beginning of class, these could also be used as study guide for test
• Relate a topic- Students write about a topic and relate it to their own personal experience

McGlynn, A. (2001) Successful Beginnings for College Teaching Atwood Publishing:Madison, WI.

Enhancing your lecturing

(Adapted from Joy of Teaching, Peter Filene)

Why do over 86% of professors lecture? How can we improve on this popular modality?

Lecture

Advantages

• Efficient and effective delivery of information
• Cost Efficient
• Allows content coverage (?)
• Familiar method

Disadvantages

• Does not encourage independent thoughts
• Does not develop higher level cognitive skills
• Encourages passive learners
• Students do not retain information

Five Keys to Successful Lecturing

1. Begin your lecture with a question or vignette (grab attention and pull students into content of the day)
2. State purpose or what you want to accomplish today (before or after the question) This can be written on the board
3. Compare two schools of thought on this subject
4. Offer your answer to the question poised at the beginning
5. Leave students with a question to explore

Students should leave lecture with questions they want to explore but with an understanding of the significance of this content. Why are we learning this information?

Remember to Be Enthusiastic, so don’t read the entire lecture. Use eye contact, gestures and movement to signal your enthusiasm.

Remember to Be Organized, use multiple modalities of learning visual, auditory (have students read quotes or listen to audio tape), even silence

Here is a possible Lecture format

From the hard copy book Tools for Teaching by Barbara Gross Davis; Jossey-Bass Publishers: San Francisco, 1993. Linking to this book chapter from other websites is permissible. However, the contents of this chapter may not be copied, printed, or distributed in hard copy form without permission.]

Tell Students about the benefits of study teams. Study teams meet regularly outside of class to study together, read and review course material, complete course assignments, comment on each other's written work, prepare for tests and exams, and help each other with difficulties that are encountered in class. Study teams assume students will help each other and by explaining learn more.

Explain how study teams work. Study teams can work in a number of ways.

• In one model, all students read the assignments but each member agrees to provide to the group in-depth coverage of a particular segment of the material and to answer as fully as possible whatever questions other members of the study team might raise.
• In another model, the teams' activities vary from meeting to meeting. For example, at one meeting, teams might review class notes to see whether there is agreement on the most important points of the lecture or discussion. In another session, teams might go over a class quiz or test to ensure that all team members clearly understand each of the questions, especially those that were answered incorrectly by one or more members.
• In a third model, the main agenda for each study team session is a set of study questions. Early in the term, the study questions are provided by the professor but after three or four weeks, each team member must bring a study question related to the week's lecture material to the team meeting. (Sources: Gushy, 1988; Johnson, Johnson, and Smith, 1991; Light, 1992; "Study Groups Pay Off," 1991)

If Study teams are optional, offer students extra credit for participation. For example, students who are members of an official study team might get bonus points for each assignment, based on the average grade received by the individual group members. (Source: "Study Groups Pay Off," 1991)

Let students know what their responsibilities are as a study team member. Students who participate in study teams agree to do the following:

• Prepare before the study team meeting (for example, do all the required reading or problem sets)
• Complete any tasks that the group assigns to its members
• Attend all meetings and arrive on time
• Actively participate during the sessions in ways that further the work of the group
• Help promote one another's learning and success
• Provide assistance, support, and encouragement to group members
• Be involved in periodic self-assessments to determine whether the study team is working successfully (Is too much work being required? Is the time in study team meetings well spent?)

In addition, let students know that they can improve the effectiveness of their study teams by making sure each session has a clearly articulated agenda and purpose. They can also work more efficiently if all logistical arrangements are set for the semester: meeting time, length, and location.

Help students locate meeting rooms. Arrange with your department or campus room scheduler to make available small meeting rooms for study teams.

Limit groups to no more than six students. Groups larger than six have several drawbacks: it is too easy for students to become passive observers rather than active participants.

Let students select their own study teams unless you have a large class. Since the groups are designed to last the term and will meet outside of class, give students the opportunity to form groups of three to six members. Arrange one or two open groups for students who do not know others in the class. If your class is very large and letting students select their own groups seems too difficult, have students sign up for teams scheduled to meet at particular times. (Source: Walvoord, 1986)

Use a portion of class time for arranging study groups. Announce that study groups will be set up during the third or fourth week of the course. At that time, hand out a description of study teams and students' responsibilities, and let students talk among themselves to form groups or to sign up for scheduled time slots. Suggest that all members of the study team exchange phone numbers. Encourage the study teams to select one person as the convener who will let all members know where the group is to meet.

Devote a class session to study teams. Ask students to meet in their study teams to review course material or prepare for an upcoming exam or assignment. Use the time to check in with the groups to see how well they are operating. Some faculty regularly substitute study team meetings for lectures. To the extent possible, meet with a study team during an office hour or review the work of a study team sometime during the semester.

Beckman, M. "Collaborative Learning: Preparation for the Workplace and Democracy" College Teaching, 1990, 38(4), 128-133.

Chickering, A. W, and Gamson, Z. F (eds.), Applying the Seven Principles for Good Practice in Undergraduate Education. New Directions for Teaching and Learning, no.47. San Francisco: JosseyBass, 1991.

Collier, K. G. "Peer-Group Learning in Higher Education: The Development of Higher-order Skills." Studies in Higher Education, 1980, 5(1), 55-62.

Connery, B. A. "Group Work and Collaborative Writing." Teaching at Davis, 1988, 14(1), 2-4. (Publication of the Teaching Resources Center, University of California at Davis)

Cooper, J. "Cooperative Learning and College Teaching: Tips from the Trenches." Teaching Professor, 1990, 4(5), 1-2.

Cooper, J., and Associates. Cooperative Learning and College Instruction. Long Beach: Institute for Teaching and Learning, California State University, 1990.

Fiechtner, S. B., and Davis, E. A. "Why Some Groups Fail: A Survey of Students' Experiences with Learning Groups." In A. Goodsell, M. Maher, V. Tinto, and Associates (eds.), Collaborative Learning: A Sourcebook for Higher Education. University Park: National Center on Postsecondary Teaching, Learning, and Assessment, Pennsylvania State University, 1992.

Goodsell, A., Maher, M., Tinto, V, and Associates (eds.). Collaborative Learning: A Sourcebook for Higher Education. University Park: National Center on Postsecondary Teaching, Learning, and Assessment, Pennsylvania State University, 1992. Guskey, T R. Improving Student Learning in College Classrooms. Springfield, Ill: Thomas, 1988.

Hendrickson, A. D. "Cooperative Group Test-Taking." Focus, 1990,5(2), 6 (Publication of the Office of Educational Development Programs, University of Minnesota) Johnson, D. W, and Johnson, R. T. Cooperation and Competition: Theory and Research. Edina, Minn.: Interaction Books, 1989.

Johnson, D. W., Johnson, R. T., and Smith, K. A. Cooperative Learning:Increasing College Faculty Instructional Productivity. ASHE-FRIC Higher Education Report No.4. Washington, D.C.: School of Education and Human Development, George Washington University, 1991.

Kohn, A. No Contest: The Case Against Competition. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1986.

Light, R. J. The Havard Assessment Seminars: Second Report. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University, 1992.

McKeachie, W. J., Pintrich, P R., Lin, Y.-G., and Smith, D.A.F. Teaching and Learning in the College Classroom: A Review of the Research Literature. Ann Arbor: National Center for

Research to Improve Postsecondary Teaching and Learning, University of Michigan, 1986.

Rau, W., and Heyl, B. S. "Humanizing the College Classrooms: Collaborative Learning and Social Organization Among Students." Teaching Sociology, 1990, 18(2), 141-155.

Sansalone, M. "Teaching Structural Engineering Through Case Studies and Competitions." CUE, 1989, 2(2), 7. (Newsletter available from Cornell University, Ithaca, N.Y)

Slavin, R. F. "Cooperative Learning." Review of Educational Research, 1980, 50(2), 315-342.

Slavin, R. E. "When Does Cooperative Learning Increase Student Achievement?" Psychological Bulletin, 1983, 94(3), 429-445.

Smith, K. A. "Cooperative Learning Groups." In S. F. Schmoberg (ed.), Strategies for Active Teaching and Learning in University Classrooms. Minneapolis: Office of Educational Development Programs, University of Minnesota, 1986.

"Study Groups Pay Off." Teaching Professor, 1991, 5(7), 7.

Tiberius, R. G. Small Group Teaching: A Trouble-Shooting Guide. Toronto: Ontario Institute for Studies in Education Press, 1990.

Toppins, A. D. "Teaching by Testing: A Group Consensus Approach." College Teaching, 1989, 37(3), 96-99.

Walvoord, B. F Helping Students Write Well: A Guide for Teachers in All Disciplines. (2nd ed.) New York: Modern Language Association, 1986.

Whitman, N. A. Peer Teaching: To Teach Is to Learn Twice. Washington, D.C.: ASHE-ERIC Higher Education Report No.4. Washington, D.C.: Association for the Study of Higher Education, 1988

From the hard copy book Tools for Teaching by Barbara Gross Davis; Jossey-Bass Publishers: San Francisco, 1993. Linking to this book chapter from other websites is permissible. However, the contents of this chapter may not be copied, printed, or distributed in hard copy form without permission.

Organizing Learning Groups

Decide how the groups will be formed. Some faculty prefer randomly assigning students to groups to maximize their heterogeneity: a mix of males and females, verbal and quiet students, the cynical and the optimistic (Fiechtner and Davis, 1992; Smith, 1986). Some faculty let students choose with whom they want to work, although this runs the risk that groups will socialize too much and that students will self-segregate (Cooper, 1990). Self-selected groups seem to work best in small classes, for classes of majors who already know one another, or in small residential colleges (Walvoord, 1986). Still other instructors prefer to form the groups themselves, taking into account students' prior achievement, levels of preparation, work habits, ethnicity, and gender (Connery, 1988). A middle ground, proposed by Walvoord (1986), is to ask students to express a preference, if they wish, then make the assignments yourself. You could, for example, ask students to write down the names of three students with whom they would most like to work.

Be conscious of group size. In general, groups of four or five members work best. Larger groups decrease each member's opportunity to participate actively. The less skillful the group members, the smaller the groups should be. The shorter amount of time available, the smaller the groups should be. (Sources: Cooper, 1990; Johnson, Johnson, and Smith, 1991; Smith, 1986)

Keep groups together. When a group is not working well, avoid breaking it up, even if the group requests it. The addition of the floundering group's members to ongoing groups may throw off their group process, and the bailed-out troubled group does not learn to cope with its unproductive interactions. (Source: Wolvoord, 1986)

Help groups plan how to proceed. Ask each group to devise a plan of action: who will be doing what and when. Review the groups' written plans or meet with each group to discuss its plan.

Regularly check in with the groups. If the task spans several weeks, you will want to establish checkpoints with the groups. Ask groups to turn in outlines or drafts or to meet with you.

Provide mechanisms for groups to deal with uncooperative members.

Walvoord (1986) recommends telling the class that after the group task is completed, each student will submit to the instructor an anonymous assessment of the participation of the other group members: who did extra work and who shirked work. If several people indicate that an individual did less than a fair share, that person could receive a lower grade than the rest of the group. This system works, says Walvoord, if groups have a chance in the middle of the project to discuss whether any members are not doing their share. Members who are perceived as shirkers then have an opportunity to make amends. Here are some other options for dealing with shirkers:

• Keep the groups at three students: it is hard to be a shirker in a small group.
• Make it clear that each group must find its own way to handle unproductive group behavior.
• Allow the groups, by majority vote, to dismiss a member who is not carrying a fair share. Students who are dropped from a group must persuade the group to reconsider, find acceptance in another group, or take a failing grade for the project.

Perhaps the best way to assure comparable effort among all group members is to design activities in which there is a clear division of labor and each student must contribute if the group is to reach its goal. (Sources: Connery, 1988; Walvoord, 1986)

• Ensure that individual student performance is assessed and that the groups know how their members are doing. (Source: Johnson, Johnson, and Smith, 1991)
• Give students an opportunity to evaluate the effectiveness of their group. Once or twice during the group work task, ask group members to discuss two questions: What action has each member taken that was helpful for the group? Rau and Heyl (1990) have developed a form that can be used for an interim or final evaluation. (Sources: Johnson, Johnson, and Smith, 1991; Walvoord, 1986)
• Decide how to grade members of the group.

1. All the same? Individual scores? . If you assign the same grade to the entire group, the grade should not account for more than a small part of a student's grade in the class (perhaps a few bonus points that would raise a test score from a B - to a B). (Sources: Cooper, 1990; Johnson, Johnson, and Smith, 1991)

"I paid my tuition to learn from a professor, not to have to work with my classmates, who don't know as much." Let students know at the beginning of the term that you will be using some group techniques. Inform students about the research studies on the effectiveness of collaborative learning and describe the role it will play in your course. (Source: Cooper and Associates, 1990)

"Our group just isn't working out." Encourage students to stick with it.

"Students won't want to work in groups." The best advice is to explain your rationale, design well-structured meaningful tasks, give students clear directions, set expectations for how team members are to contribute and interact, and invite students to try it. (Source: Cooper and Associates, 1990)

"Students won't work well in groups."

"If I do group work, I won't be able to cover as much material during the semester as I do when I lecture." Yes, adding group work may mean covering fewer topics. But research shows that students who work in groups develop an increased ability to solve problems and evidence greater understanding of the material. (Source: Cooper and Associates, 1990)

Tips for Facilitating Critical Thinking

One of the challenges of educators is developing the tools to facilitate students to think critically. Below are some tools, which can be used to enhance critical, thinking in your class. If we want to help students develop this power (to think and to do),” to train the youth to be thinkers, and not mere reflectors of other men's thought." (E.G. White, Ed. p. 17), we as professor must be willing to encourage students to find answers instead of proving all of the answers for our students.

• Present students with real-life problems and ask them to devise practical solutions.   In one example, students were asked to design a mass transit system that would run from Chicago to Michigan City, Indiana, over, under, or through the 77 miles of Lake Michigan.
• Help guide students' critical thinking process by asking questions: e.g. "what do you think should be the first step?” " What do we need to find out to be able to solve the problem?" "What’s the most important thing we're trying to accomplish?"

Lrynock, Karoline and Robb, Louise (1999).  Problem Solved: How to Coach Cognition.  Educational Leadership, 57:29-32.

• Encourage students to work cooperatively in groups
• Encourage students to think about and take responsibility for their education
• Allow students a voice in decisions made that affect them
• Promote social and political awareness
• Emphasize the process of learning rather than the end product
• Emphasize that there is not always one "right" answer to a dilemma
• The teacher shouldn’t be set up as the ultimate authority--promote a "we're all investigating this together" mentality.

Tsui, Lisa (2000).  Effects of Campus Culture on Student' Critical Thinking.  Review of Higher Education, 23:421-441.

• Critical thinking can be fostered through Socratic discussion, which elicits and probes students thoughts, and allows them to develop and evaluate their thinking by making it explicit.  Socratic discussion gives students the opportunity to develop and test their ideas--the beliefs they have formed on their own and those they learn in school.  Thus, students can synthesize their beliefs into a coherent and well-developed perspective.
• Socratic questioning can be categorized into three general forms, listed below along with tips for fostering each kind:
  • Spontaneous. If teachers keep their curiosity and wondering alive, they will spontaneously ask children about what they mean and explore with them how we might find out if something is true.  If something said seems questionable, misleading, or false, spontaneous Socratic questioning provides a way of helping students to become self-correcting, rather than relying on correction by the teacher.
  • Exploratory. Exploratory Socratic questioning enables teachers to find out what students know or think and use it to probe into student thinking on a variety of issues.  You might have students take or pick an issue raised in class discussion and give their own views, or have students form groups to discuss the issue or topic.  You might pose a question and have students discuss it as a group.  Possible topics include "What is a friend?"; "What is education? Why learn?"; "What is the difference between living and non-living things?"
  • Issue-Specific.  This allows students to really probe an issue or concept in depth, to have students clarify, sort, analyze and evaluate thoughts and perspectives, distinguish the known from the unknown, and synthesize relevant factors and knowledge.  It requires that the instructor plan ahead and consider possible perspectives on the issue, grounds for conclusions, and the likeliest student answers.
• There are 6 categories of Socratic questions that teachers can use to stimulate discussion:
  • Questions of Clarification (What do you mean by? Could you give me an example?)
  • Questions that Probe Assumptions (What are you assuming? Is that always the case? Why do you think the assumption holds here?)
  • Questions that Probe Reasons and Evidence (Why do you say that?  What other information do we need? Is there good evidence for believing that?  Is there reason to doubt that evidence?)
  • Questions About Viewpoints or Perspectives (How would other groups/types of people respond? Why? Can anyone see this another way? What would someone who disagrees says?  How are Ken and Roxanne's ideas alike/different?
  • Questions that Probe Implications and Consequences (When you say___, are you implying___? What effect would that have? Would that necessarily happen or only probably happen?
  • Questions About the Question (How can we find out? Is the question clear? Do we understand it? Can we break the question down at all? What does this question assume? Why is this question important?)

Paul, Richard, Binker, A.J.A, Martin, Douglas, Vetrano, Chris, and Kreklau, Heidi (1989).  Critical Thinking Handbook: 6th-9th Grades.  Rohnert Park, CA: Center for Critical Thinking and Moral Critique.

By L. Dee Fink.
Reprinted with permission of the University of Oklahoma Instructional Development Program, July 19, 1999.

“Focus on Faculty” is a publication of the Brigham Young University Faculty Center, D. Lynn Sorenson, Ed.

Getting students to read before coming to class

Don Norton, BYU English Department

A perpetual problem in teaching is conducting class when few students have read the assigned material. This is a problem regardless of whether one is teaching a traditional “book-reading” course or a course with Web-based materials. For years I have been collecting ideas on how to get more students to read their assignments before class. Here are some suggestions from my collection:

1. Cues. First, it is axiomatic that a teacher accompany any reading assignment with a clear statement of the purpose or direction of the reading. It is ineffective simply to say to students, “Read these pages or that chapter for Friday.” Give students a set of study questions. Explain what they should look for in the assigned readings. Give them cues on what is most important or what in the reading they will be responsible for.

2. Quizzes. A common tactic (and often student detested) is the pop quiz. Such a quiz can be effective if students know what will be tested, if the quizzes’ purposes are clear, if the questions perhaps promote discussion and learning, or if the quizzes are given regularly. Or, to encourage students to read before class, give them a set of short essay questions, one of which will be used for a five-minute quiz at the beginning of the next class. These quizzes assure preparation and are easy to grade.

3. Study questions (from teachers). Accompany each reading assignment with key study questions. Alert students they may be called on randomly to answer those questions in class.

4. Discussion questions (from students). At the beginning of class, invite each student to submit at least two questions for discussion. Then call on students at random to respond to the student-generated questions.

5. Summaries. Assign students at the beginning of class to submit a concise summary of the main points of the assigned material or a personal response to some part of the reading assignment.

6. Syllabus. At the beginning of the semester include in the syllabus a precise calendar of assignments along with explicit counsel on “how to succeed” in the class: general reading objectives, reading and test preparation strategies, perhaps even sample test questions.

7. Less is more? Discuss with students the reasonableness of the reading load you assign. If the load is heavy, then perhaps the students need help with how to handle it. Perhaps the load is simply too heavy.

8. The ideal. Create in the classroom such a fervor and interest in upcoming assignments that students cannot restrain themselves from coming to class prepared.

Reflections on Integration of Faith and Learning for the New Year

The integration of faith and learning is at the essence of authentic Christian higher education and should be wholeheartedly implemented across the campus and across the curriculum.  This was once the goal of almost every college in America.  http://www.uu.edu/dockery/092000-erlc.htm Integrating faith and learning is much more than prayer and worship at the beginning of the class.  However, it is also much more than intellectual integration. It also involves serving as an example through our lifestyle and profession/disciplines for our students. Our relationship with our students should reflect our faith. If our lives do not exemplify our faith, if our students do not see Christ in us, then integration of faith and learning is incomplete.  Integration of faith must be holistic.

As you prepare for your first day of class, remember:

• Integration must be intentional, not incidental
  • Use the worship thought to reflect a principle of value you want to teach that day
  • Plan opportunities for faith integration each day
  • Faith integration is broader then religious doctrines
• Professional values and values of the discipline should be congruent with our faith, help students understand the connection
  • Recognize professional/discipline values in your department
  • Reflect on ways these values have been distorted by sin
  • Use this process to enhance critical thinking in your students
• Integration of faith is a process, each day you contribute to that process
• Since it is a process it may take longer than the student’s college experience, so provide the students will tools to facilitate the process
• Use co-curricular activities as part of the integration process

“This integration, this "faithful intellect," will guide and guard our students not just while at the university but throughout their journey through the postmodern sea, where they will face a lifelong barrage of demands for belief, indulgence, and consumption. Our role as faculty is to give them the tools they can hone and use both now and in the future.” http://www.virtualsalt.com/integrat.htm

Adapted from Dr. Larry Burton lecture and web site cited above.

By Myron Jaworsky
Associate Faculty, Accounting, Pima Community College, Tucson, Arizona

A BRIEF SUMMARY OF THE BEST PRACTICES IN
COLLEGE TEACHING:

Intended to Challenge the Professional Development of All Teachers
Compiled by Tom Drummond
North Seattle Community College

Introduction/Overview:

This is part 2 in the 10 week series. I have included some of Dr. Drummond’s thoughts for your reflection.

Recognizing that teaching is both art and science, I advance this list of dimensions of excellence as a starting point for discussions about the performances that we as teachers strive for and may help each other obtain. While the skills of teaching are widely researched and described, they are rarely rewarded, mostly, I think, because we don't share this common language about best practices. Instead of directly addressing learning to teach well, we often erroneously assume new teachers know how to teach because they used to be students.

1. Becoming an excellent college teacher is a continuing life-long professional challenge, the dimensions of which often go unrecognized. In the general mind, doctors and lawyers are professionals, teachers are not. I believe we could change our semi-professional status if we could agree upon a list of Best Practices such as this one and help each other achieve them.

The Best Practices chosen here focus on those aspects of classroom teaching competence that are visible to oneself and to others and thus become useful for formative evaluation. When components of excellence can be defined in language that details teaching actions that are confirmable performances, that is, neither minutely technical nor remotely abstract, we could investigate those actions in practice, either collaboratively or individually. For if a component can be self-perceived near the time it occurs, it can be modified or strengthened. That's how professionals, who must engage themselves in reflective practice, get better. In this spirit I offer a list of what I have struggled to learn to do in my 20+ years of college teaching about teaching. Even though classrooms vary in content and goals, I believe this core set of Best Practices does apply to most adult education environments, in both vocational and academic areas, albeit in differing degrees. It is my attempt to specify which of the myriad things and relations in teaching deserve close study.

1. Group Discussion Triggers: effective ways to present a common experience to engage a group in a discussion. Awareness of complexity and enhanced understanding result when learners discuss the meaning of events with each other. But to be successful, groups need a common experience to draw them into participation, establish a personal connection with the content, and provide a shared referent from which to exemplify their ideas. There are many kinds of triggers, but all are designed to precede group discussion. Participants, therefore, become connected with both a concrete example of the content and each other.
   • Short Readings: Brief assignments to read in class (especially effective are contrasting viewpoints).
   • First Person Experience: Works written in a personal voice, autobiographies, biographies, oral histories, diaries, and memoirs, when used as counterpoints to abstract texts, bridge the gap between their own lives and the content under study. Students more readily take part in discussions when they can personally relate to the material.
   • Individual Task with Review: Problems to solve that apply the concepts presented. Students complete a worksheet or other task and compare the results with their neighbors before the whole class discusses the answers.
   • Self-assessment Questionnaires: Short surveys of learner attitudes and values.
   • Total Group Response: Human Graph: Learners literally take a stand on an imaginary graph or continuum. The first few volunteers justify their choice of position, and then the remainder of the class joins them without comment.
   • Case Studies: A case study is the factual account of human experience centered in a problem or issue faced by a person, group or organization. It can raise a variety of complex issues and stimulate discussions of alternative viewpoints. Typically, case studies are written objectively and include a brief overview of the situation, its context, and the major decisions that must be made. Rather than expecting learners to have a right answer, learners develop their ability to articulate their thoughts, frame problems, generate solutions, and evolve principles that may apply to other situations.
   • Visual Studies: Seeing first hand creates a common ground. Photographic essays, video programs, and personally made video recordings are examples of ways to bring into the classroom direct depictions of the concepts being discussed.
   • Role Play: Learners explore human relations problems by enacting problem situations and then discussing the enactments. Together learners can explore feelings, attitudes, values, and problem solving strategies. It attempts to help individuals find personal meaning within their social world and resolve personal dilemmas with the assistance of the social group.
2. Thoughtful Questions: effective ways to formulate questions that foster engagement and confidence. What does it mean to think? Some people would like to be able to think better, or, more usually, want other people's thinking to improve. But research shows that everyone is capable of thinking. The problem is to stop teachers from precluding the chance for it to happen. The right kind of questions opens the door to student's participation. The right questions focus the learner's attention upon applying their current understanding to the content or problem. The right questions are discoverable, that is, have follow-up avenues that a teacher can follow to lead a student to find an adequate answer using resources available (Socratic). Each success on one of these problems is a lesson to the learner that he or she knows how to think. (And each failure, a lesson in the opposite.) Note that none of these tutorial questions asks for recall of facts or information (didactic questions).
   • Discoverable Tutorial Questions: These eleven question formulations meet the criteria of being both perceptually based and discoverable. The responses to these questions lie shared experience, so all learners, who may not at first answer acceptably, can be led back to available evidence to find adequate answers.
     • Description: What did you see? What happened? What is the difference between....?
     • Reflection: What was interesting? What was surprising?
     • Analogy: What else does it remind you of? What else does it look like?
     • Common Purpose: What is the purpose of.....? What is the usual function of.....?
     • Procedures: How does one normally do......? How was this done? What is the normal (non- creative) next step?
     • Possibilities: What else could .....? How could we......? If we didn't have, or couldn't use, ......,what could........?
     • Prediction: What will happen next? What will you see? What will be the effect?
     • Justification: How can you tell? What evidence led you to.....?
     • Theorizing: Why is it that way? What is the reason for it?
     • Generalization: What is the same about ....... and ......? What could you generalize from these events? What principle is operating?
     • Definition: What does ...... mean? Define the word ...........
   • Wait Time: After posing one of these tutorials, learners need at least 5 seconds in order to process it and begin the formulation of an answer.

Teaching Styles

In our previous tip, we discussed several of the leading models of student learning styles, and suggested the employment of one may well hold positive impact on student retention, program completion and related accountability objectives. Now that the new academic year is up and running, let's take a look at some of the dynamics of our individual teaching styles.

You have likely heard your entire career that we "teach as we have been taught." While I have not seen hard research on this issue, we do not doubt its veracity. Digging a bit deeper however, we are increasingly convinced that each of us also derives much of our individual teaching style from our individual learning style. That is what has worked for us as a student has probably convinced us that it likely works for many students, and therefore it drives much of what we do in front of the classroom. Richard Felder, of North Carolina State University, has researched this issue extensively, and some of his thoughts are quite revealing.

Felder states that individual teaching styles may be defined in terms of the answers we provide to five questions:

1. What type of information, i.e. concrete or abstract, is most emphasized?
2. What mode of presentation, i.e. visual or verbal, is stressed?
3. How is the presentation organized, i.e. inductively or deductively?
4. What mode of student participation is facilitated, i.e. active or passive?
5. What type of perspective is provided on information presented, i.e. sequential or global?

Problems occur because there are often significant mismatches between the learning styles of most college students and the teaching styles of most college professors. The key to addressing the issue is present a variety of styles to all learners, so that students are not consistently taught in their least preferred mode. Among others, Felder recommends:

• Balancing between concrete and abstract information;
• Making extensive use of visuals before, during, and after presenting verbal material;
• Conducting small group exercises in class;
• Having students cooperate on homework;
• Informing students of their individual learning styles to foster "ownership" of their learning.

Why not invest some time in reflecting upon your individual teaching style, and making some small adjustments that might increase your instructional effectiveness?

The Last Day of Class:

Faculty members spend lots of time preparing for the first day of class but the last day of class is just as important as the first. Here are some teaching tips for the last day of class.

Consider devoting the last day of class to an overall review of the course concepts and issues.

"It's hard for students to fit each lecture or assignment into the big picture," says a professor of business administration. "I believe that it's important to give an overall review so that students can compare where they were at the beginning of the course to where they are now.

"By highlighting the main concepts and issues and how they fit together, you give students a conceptual framework for retaining what they have learned in the course as well as for preparing for the final examination."

Remember the end of semester is time to celebrate.

1. Select end of semester activity which reflects your style
2. Summarize concepts of course
3. Go over syllabus and review what has been learned
4. Show how content in this course fits in with other courses
5. Share how information can be used for life
6. Greet individually and personally
7. Ask students to prepare for the final class and summarize learning
8. Have students write letter to students in the class next semester
9. Helps students see the logical next steps in their learning option
10. Ask students to share 3 most important things learned in the class
11. Describe your experience, what you have learned
12. Have students complete self addressed envelop to let you know what they learned in the class in 3 weeks.
13. Avoid the tendency to introduce new concepts

Todd Zakrajsek, University of Central Michigan, facit.cmich.edu/videos/tfft-last-day.html